Ginkgo biloba Ameliorates Fluoride Toxicity in Rats by Altering Histopathology, Serum Enzymes of Heme Metabolism and Oxidative Stress without Affecting Brain mGluR5 Gene

Background: The genus <em>Cissus</em> (Vitaceae) is known for its medicinal properties. <em>Cissus quadrangularis</em> is a well-known medicinal plant, but other species are less explored. Objective: To evaluate the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of <em>Cissus arnottiana</em>, <em>Cissus heyneana</em>, and <em>Cissus vitiginea</em>. Materials and Methods: The methanolic extracts of the aerial parts of the three <em>Cissus</em> species were evaluated for their total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and antioxidant activity using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and phosphomolybdenum assays. The anti-inflammatory activity was assessed using the protein denaturation inhibition assay. Results: <em>C. heyneana</em> showed the highest TPC (142.35 ± 2.15 mg GAE/g) and TFC (88.45 ± 1.52 mg QE/g). In the DPPH assay, <em>C. heyneana</em> exhibited the lowest IC50 value (45.20 ± 1.12 µg/mL). All three species showed significant anti-inflammatory activity, with <em>C. heyneana</em> showing the highest inhibition (78.45% at 500 µg/mL). Conclusion: The results suggest that <em>C. heyneana</em> is a potential source of natural antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents.